II. GRAMMAR

1. Adjective, Adverb - English Grammar

ADJECTIVE/ADVERB

There are three forms of comparison:

- positive
- comparative
- superlative

A - comparison with -er/-est

clean - cleaner - (the) cleanest

We use -er/-est with the following adjectives:

1) adjectives with one syllable

clean	cleaner	cleanest
new	newer	newest
cheap	cheaper	cheapest

2) adjectives with two syllables and the following endings:

2 - 1) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -y

dirty	dirtier	dirtiest
easy	easier	easiest
happy	happier	happiest
pretty	prettier	prettiest

2 - 2) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -er

clever

cleverer

cleverest

2 - 3) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -le

simple

simpler

simplest

2 - 4) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -ow

narrow

narrower

narrowest

Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est

large	larger	largest	leave out the silent -e
big	bigger	biggest	Double the consonant after short vowel
sad	sadder	saddest	Double the consonant after short vowel
dirty	dirtier	dirtiest	Change -y to -i (consonant before -y)
shy	shyer	shyest	Here -y is not changed to -i. (although consonant before -y)

B - comparison with more - most

difficult - more difficult - (the) most difficult

all adjectives with more than one syllable (except some adjectives with two syllables above – see 2 - 1 to 2 - 4)

C - Irregular adjectives

good	better	best
bad	worse	worst
much	more	most	uncountable nouns
many	more	most	countable nouns
little	less	least
little	smaller	smallest

D - Special adjectives

Some ajdectives have two possible forms of comparison.

common	commoner / more common	commonest / most common
likely	likelier / more likely	likeliest / most likely
pleasant	pleasanter / more pleasant	pleasantest / most pleasant
polite	politer / more polite	politest / most polite
simple	simpler / more simple	simplest / most simple
stupid	stupider / more stupid	stupidest / most stupid
subtle	subtler / more subtle	subtlest
sure	surer / more sure	surest / most sure

Difference in meaning with adjectives:

far	farther	farthest	distance
far	further	furthest	distance or time
late	later	latest
	latter	x
	x	last
old	older	oldest	people and things
old	elder	eldest	people (family)
near	nearer	nearest	distance
near	x	next	order

DIE COMPARISON OF ADVERBS IN ENGLISH

There are three forms:

- positive
- comparative
- superlative

A - Comparison with -er/-est

hard - harder - (the) hardest

We use -er/-est with the following adverbs:

1) all adverbs with one syllable

fast	faster	fastest
high	higher	highest

2) The adverb: early

B - Comparison with more - most

carefully - more carefully - (the) most carefully

adverbs ending on -ly (not: early)

C - Irregular adverbs

well	better	best
badly	worse	worst
much	more	most
little	less	least
late	later	last
far	farther further	farthest furthest

ATTENTION!
In informal English some adverbs are used without -ly (e.g. cheap, loud, quick). There are two forms of comparison possible, depending on the form af the adverb:
cheaply - more cheaply - most cheaply
cheap - cheaper - cheapest

Adverbs of frequency

always, usually, regularly, normally, often, sometimes, occasionally, rarely, seldom, never are adverbs of frequency.

The position of these adverbs is:

before the main verb

		Adverb of frequency	Verb
I		always	get up	at 6.45.
Peter	can	usually	play	football on Sundays.
Mandy	has	sometimes	got	lots of homework.

after a form of to be am, are, is (was, were)

	Verb	Adverb of frequency
Susan	is	never	late.

The adverbs often, usually, sometimes and occasionally can go at the beginning of a sentence.

Sometimes I go swimming.
Often we surf the internet.

Sometimes these adverbs are put at the end of the sentence.
We read books occasionally.

The adverbs rarely and seldom can go at the end of the sentence.
He eats fish very seldom.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS HAVE THE SAME FORM

The following adjectives and adverbs have the same form:

Adjective	Adverb
close	close
daily	daily
early	early
fair	fair
far	far
fast	fast
free	free
hard	hard
high	high
late	late
lively	lively
long	long
lovely	lovely
low	low
right	right
wide	wide
wrong	wrong

ADVERBS, WHERE THE BASIS IS NOT ADJECTIVE

The following adverbs are not derived from adjectives:

Adverbs	Comment
here	adverb of place
there	adverb of place
today	adverb of time
now
then
still
soon
yet
often	adverb of frequency
sometimes
never
hard
hardly

POSITION OF ADVERBS

The position of adverbs in sentences

We can put adverbs in different positions in sentences. There are three main positions but also a lot of exceptions.

In English we never put an adverb between the verb and the object.

We often play handball. - CORRECT

We play often handball. - WRONG

The three main positions of adverbs in English sentences

1) Adverb at the beginning of a sentence

Unfortunately, we could not see Mount Snow don.

2) Adverb in the middle of a sentence

The children often ride their bikes.

3) Adverb at the end of a sentence

Andy reads a comic every afternoon.

More than one adverb at the end of a sentence

If there are more adverbs at the end of a sentence, the word order is normally:

Manner - Place - Time

Peter sang the song happily in the bathroom yesterday evening.

2. Conditional sentences

Conditional sentences (if-clauses, main clauses)

The conditional sentences are sometimes confusing for learners of English.

Watch out:

1) Which type of the conditional sentences is used?

2) Where is the if-clause (e.g. at the beginning or at the end of the conditional sentence)?

There are three types of the if-clauses.

type	condition
I	condition possible to fulfill
II	condition in theory possible to fulfill
III	condition not possible to fulfill (too late)

Form

type	if clause	main clause
I	Simple Present	will-future (or Modal + infinitive)
II	Simple Past	would + infinitive *
III	Past Perfect	would + have + past participle *

Examples (if-clause at the beginning)

type	if clause	main clause
I	If I study,	I will pass the exam.
II	If I studied,	I would pass the exam.
III	If I had studied,	I would have passed the exam.

Examples (if-clause at the end)

type	main clause	if-clause
I	I will pass the exam	if I study.
II	I would pass the exam	if I studied.
III	I would have passed the exam	if I had studied.

Examples (affirmative and negative sentences)

type		Examples
		long forms	short/contracted forms
I	+	If I study, I will pass the exam.	If I study, I'll pass the exam.
I	-	If I study, I will not fail the exam. If I do not study, I will fail the exam.	If I study, I won't fail the exam. If I don't study, I'll fail the exam.
II	+	If I studied, I would pass the exam.	If I studied, I'd pass the exam.
II	-	If I studied, I would not fail the exam. If I did not study, I would fail the exam.	If I studied, I wouldn't fail the exam. If I didn't study, I'd fail the exam.
III	+	If I had studied, I would have passed the exam.	If I'd studied, I'd have passed the exam.
III	-	If I had studied, I would not have failed the exam. If I had not studied, I would have failed the exam.	If I'd studied, I wouldn't have failed the exam. If I hadn't studied, I'd have failed the exam.

* We can substitute could or might for would (should, may or must are sometimes possible, too).

I would pass the exam.

I could pass the exam.

I might pass the exam.

I may pass the exam.

I should pass the exam.

I must pass the exam.

Replacing if - Omitting if - if vs. when - in case vs. if

Replacing if

‘If’ can be replaced by words or expressions with a similar meaning.

The most common are:

as long as
assuming (that)
on condition (that)
on the assumption (that)
provided (that)
supposing (that)
unless
with the condition (that)

Omitting if

Had I known... (instead of If I had known...)

Were you my daughter,... (instead of: If you were my daughter,...)

Should you need my advice,... (instead of: If you should need my advice,...)

if vs. when

‘if and when’ are interchangeable when the statement of the conditional clause is a fact or a general issue (also known as zero conditonal)

If you heat ice, it melts.

When you heat ice, it melts.

if is used for something that, according to the speaker, might happen.

We can spend the afternoon on the beach if the weather is fine.

when is used for something that, according to the speaker, will happen.

I will clean up the kitchen right away when I'm back from work.

in case vs. if

in case of can be used to shorten an if-clause as shown below:

If there is a fire, leave the room.

In case of fire, leave the room.

While if expresses a condition (1), in case is used to express a possibility (2).

(1)	I need painkillers if I'm in severe pain.
(2)	I need painkillers in case I'm in severe pain.

The expression just in case is used pretty much the same way.

I got you a pizza just in case you were hungry.
(I don't know whether you are hungry.)

3. Prepositions at, in, on

Preposition	Examples
in	We sit in the room.
	I see a house in the picture.
	There are trouts in the river.
	He lives in Paris.
	I found the picture in the paper.
	He sits in the corner of the room.
	He sits in the back of the car.
	We arrive in Madrid.
	He gets in the car.
	She likes walking in the rain.
	My cousin lives in the country.
	There are kites in the sky.
	He plays in the street. (BE)
	She lives in a hotel.
	The boys stand in a line.
	There is a big tree in the middle of the garden.
	He is in town.
	I have to stay in bed.
	The robber is in prison now.
at	She sits at the desk.
	Open your books at page 10.
	The bus stops at Graz.
	I stay at my grandmother's.
	I stand at the door.
	Look at the top of the page.
	The car stands at the end of the street.
	You mustn't park your car at the front of the school.
	Can we meet at the corner of the street?
	I met John at a party.
	Pat wasn't at home yesterday.
	I study economics at university.
	The childen are at gandmother's.
	He's looking at the park.
	He always arrives late at school.
on	The map lies on the desk.
	The picture is on page 10.
	The photo hangs on the wall.
	He lives on a farm.
	Dresden lies on the river Elbe.
	Men's clothes are on the second floor.
	He lives on Heligoland.
	The shop is on the left.
	My friend is on the way to Moscow.
	Write this information on the front of the letter.
	When she was a little girl people saw unrealistic cowboy films on television.

4. Prepositions of place and direction

Preposition	Use	Examples
above	higher than sth.	The picture hangs above my bed.
across	from one side to the other side	You mustn't go across this road here. There isn't a bridge across the river.
after	one follows the other	The cat ran after the dog. After you.
against	directed towards sth.	The bird flew against the window.
along	in a line; from one point to another	They're walking along the beach.
among	in a group	I like being among people.
around	in a circular way	We're sitting around the campfire.
behind	at the back of	Our house is behind the supermarket.
below	lower than sth.	Death Valley is 86 metres below sea level.
beside	next to	Our house is beside the supermarket.
between	sth./sb. is on each side	Our house is between the supermarket and the school.
by	near	He lives in the house by the river.
close to	near	Our house is close to the supermarket.
down	from high to low	He came down the hill.
from	the place where it starts	Do you come from Tokyo?
in front of	the part that is in the direction it faces	Our house is in front of the supermarket.
inside	opposite of outside	You shouldn't stay inside the castle.
into	entering sth.	You shouldn't go into the castle.
near	close to	Our house is near the supermarket.
next to	beside	Our house is next to the supermarket.
off	away from sth.	The cat jumped off the roof.
onto	moving to a place	The cat jumped onto the roof.
opposite	on the other side	Our house is opposite the supermarket.
out of	leaving sth.	The cat jumped out of the window.
outside	opposite of inside	Can you wait outside?
over	above sth./sb.	The cat jumped over the wall.
past	going near sth./sb.	Go past the post office.
round	in a circle	We're sitting round the campfire.
through	going from one point to the other point	You shouldn't walk through the forest.
to	towards sth./sb.	I like going to Australia. Can you come to me? I've never been to Africa.
towards	in the direction of sth.	We ran towards the castle.
under	below sth.	The cat is under the table.
up	from low to high	He went up the hill.

5. Prepositions of time

Preposition	Use	Examples
in	in months	in July; in September
	year	in 1985; in 1999
	seasons	in summer; in the summer of 69
	part of the day	in the morning; in the afternoon; in the evening
	duration	in a minute; in two weeks
at	part of the day	at night
	time of day	at 6 o'clock; at midnight
	celebrations	at Christmas; at Easter
	fixed phrases	at the same time
on	days of the week	on Sunday; on Friday
	date	on the 25th of December*
	special holidays	on Good Friday; on Easter Sunday; on my birthday
	a special part of a day	on the morning of September the 11th*
after	later than sth.	after school
ago	how far sth. happened (in the past)	6 years ago
before	earlier than sth.	before Christmas
between	time that separates two points	between Monday and Friday
by	not later than a special time	by Thursday
during	through the whole of a period of time	during the holidays
for	period of time	for three weeks
from ... to from... till/until	two points form a period	from Monday to Wednesday from Monday till Wednesday from Monday until Wednesday
past	time of the day	23 minutes past 6 (6:23)
since	point of time	since Monday
till/until	no later than a special time	till tomorrow until tomorrow
to	time of the day	23 minutes to 6 (5:37)
up to	not more than a special time	up to 6 hours a day
within	during a period of time	within a day

6. Question tags - English Grammar

Use: frequently used in spoken English when you want s.o. to agree or disagree

Form

positive statement ->question tag negative - You are Tom, aren't you?
negative statement->question tag positive - He isn't Joe, is he?

Examples: with auxiliaries

You've got a car, haven't you?

without auxiliaries (use: don't, doesn't, didn't)
They play football on Sundays, don't they?
She plays football on Sundays, doesn't she?
They played football on Sundays, didn't they?

Questions tags are used to keep a conversation going. You can agree or refuse to a sentence with a question tag.

You go to school, don't you?
You agree.	You refuse.
Yes, I do.	No, I don't.

You aren't from Germany, are you?
You agree.	You refuse.
No, I'm not.	Yes, I am.

Questions tags - Special

Although the negative word not is not in the sentence, the sentence can be negative. Then we use the "positive" question tag.

He never goes out with his dog, does he?

‘Have’ is a main verb in the sentence -> two possibilities

We have a car, _____?
We have a car, haven't we?	We have a car, don't we?
mostly British English	mostly American English

We use will with the imperative (Simple Present).

Open the window, will you?

Don't open you books, will you?

We use shall after Let's.

Let's take the next bus, shall we?

Auxiliary must

We must be at home at 8 pm, mustn't we?
Yes, we must.	No, we needn't.

7. Verbs with 2 objects

If there are two objects in a sentence, the normal word order is:
person - thing

Examples:
I must give my sister a book.

I gave Mandy the letter.
I gave her the letter.

If the thing is a pronoun, it stands behind the verb.
I must give it to her.

If we want to emphasize the person, we put the person after the thing. Then we use the preposition to.

Let's write the letter to John in California.

Using the words describe, explain, report, say - we always put the person after the thing. (preposition to)

8. Relative clauses with who/which

who: when we talk about people
which: when we talk about things
whose: instead of his/her or their

We also use that for who/which.

Contact clauses

We leave out the relative pronoun (who/which/that) if it is not the subject in the sentence.
Hint: If there is a verb after who/which/that, do not leave out the relative pronoun.

This is the boy	who		was at the party yesterday.
	"who" is subject in the sentence, do not leave it out Hint: There is the verb "was" after "who".

This is the boy	who	I	met at the party yesterday.
	"who" is not the subject in the sentence, so leave it out Hint: There is no verb after "who" (pronoun "I").
This is the boy	X	I	met at the party yesterday.

This is the bike	which		was in the shop window.
	"which" is subject in the sentence, do not leave it out Hint: There is the verb "was" after "which".

This is the bike	which	I	bought yesterday .
	"which" is not the subject in the sentence, so leave it out Hint: There is no verb after "which" (pronoun "I").
This is the bike	X	I	bought yesterday.

9. Types of Questions

1) Yes/No questions

Subject and verb change their position in statement and question.

statement	You are from Germany.
question	Are you from Germany?

We always use the short answer, not only "Yes" or "No". This sounds rude.

NOTE:
If the answer is "Yes", we always use the long form.
Example: Yes, I am.

If the answer is "No", we either use the long or the contrasted form (short form).
Example: No, I am not - No, I'm not.

Are	you	from Germany?	Yes,	I	am.
Are	you	from Germany?	No,	I	am not. 'm not.
Is	he	your friend?	Yes,	he	is.
Are	Peter and John	from England?	Yes,	they	are.

2) Questions with question words

Question word	Verb	Rest	Answer
Where	are	you from?	I'm from Stuttgart.
What	is	your name?	My name is Peter.
How	are	Pat and Sue?	They're fine.

3) Yes/No Questions and short answers with the verb have

Auxiliary	Subject	Verb	Rest	Yes/No	Subject	Auxiliary (+ n't)
Have	you	got	a cat?	Yes,	I	have.
Have	you	got	a new car?	No,	we	haven't.
Has	your brother	got	a bike?	Yes,	he	has.
Do	you	have	a cat?	Yes,	I	do.
Do	you	have	a new car?	No,	we	don't.
Does	your brother	have	a bike?	Yes,	he	does.

4) Questions with question words and the verb have

Question word	Auxiliary	Subject	Verb	Rest	Answer
Where	have	you	got	your ruler?	I've got it in my pencil case.
Where	do	you	have	your ruler?	I have it in my pencil case.

5) Questions without question words in the Simple Present

Auxiliary	Subject	Verb	Rest	Yes/No	Subject	Auxiliary (+ n't)
Do	you	read	books?	Yes,	I	do.
Do	you	read	books?	No,	I	don't.
Does	Peter	play	football?	Yes,	he	does.

6) Questions with question words in the Simple Present

Question word	Auxiliary	Subject	Verb	Rest	Answer
What	do	you	play	on your computer?	I play games on my computer.
When	does	your mother	go	to work?	She goes to work at 6 o'clock.
Where	do	you	meet	your friends?	I meet them at the bus stop.

7) Questions without question words in the Simple Past

Auxiliary	Subject	Verb	Rest	Yes/No	Subject	Auxiliary (+ n't)
Did	Max	play	football?	Yes,	he	did.
Did	Max	play	football?	No,	he	didn't.
Did	you	watch	the film yesterday?	Yes,	I	did.
Did	you	watch	the film yesterday?	No,	I	didn't.

BUT:

to be	Subject	xxx	Rest	Yes/No	Subject	Auxiliary (+ n't)
Were	you		in Leipzig last week?	Yes,	I	was.
Were	you		in Leipzig last week?	No,	I	wasn't.

8) Questions with question words in the Simple Past

Question word	Auxiliary	Subject	Verb	Rest	Answer
What	did	you	do	yesterday evening?	I did my homework.
When	did	she	meet	her boyfriend?	She met him yesterday.
Where	did	they	go	after the match?	They went to a café.

BUT:

Question word	to be	Subject	xxxxx	Rest	Answer
Where	were	you		yesterday?	I was at the cinema.

9) Subject question

Question word	Verb	Rest	Subject	Verb	Object - Place - Time
Who	runs	to the shop?	Peter	runs	to the shop.

10) Object question

Question word	Auxiliary	Subject	Verb	Rest	Answer
Who	do	you	like?		I like my mum.
Who	did	Mandy	phone	last Monday?	Mandy phoned her uncle.

NOTE!

Subject question			Object question
Who	phoned	John?	Who	did	John	phone?

10. Question words

Question words with Examples

Question word	Example
where	Where do you live?
who	Who are you?
when	When do you get up?
what	What are you doing?
why	Why do you smoke?
whose	Whose book is this?
which	Which bus do you take to school?
how	How old are you

11. The Infinitive with to

after:	the first	Gagarin was the first to fly in a spaceship.
	the last	Peter was the last to watch the film.
	the next	He is the next to get his passport.

after:	adjectives	I'm happy to be here.
		It's better not to smoke.

after:

certain verbs
(agree, choose, forget, hope, learn, promise, regret, want, …)

I learn to drive a car.

after:	question words	I don't know what to say.
		Can you tell me how to get to the bus stop?

after:

want/would like

I want you to help me.

verb + object + to-infinitive

I helped my dad to clean the car.

NOTE!!!

I want to help you.

I want you to help me.

12. The Infinitive without to

after auxiliaries/modals

can	He can run very fast.
could	As a boy he could run very fast.
may	I may fly to Africa this summer.
might	I might fly to Africa this summer.
must	I must go now.
mustn't	You mustn't smoke here.
needn't	You needn't go.
shall	We shall sing a song.
should	We should sing a song.
will	She will cook a meal for his birthday.
would	She would cook a meal for his birthday.

after to do

do	I don't know.

after the following expressions:

had better	You had better clean up your room.
would rather	Susan would rather study for her exam tomorrow.
would sooner	I would sooner read a book than watch this film.
why not	Why not ask your neighbor for help?
why should we	Why should we go by car?
why should we not	Why should we not go by car?

after verbs of perception + object (action has finished):

feel	She feels the rain fall on her face.
hear	I heard Peter sing a song.
notice	Mandy noticed the boy climb the tree.
see	They saw him climb up the roof.
watch	He watched the thieves steal a car.

after let + object:

let	Sandy let her child go out alone.
let	Mother let her daughter decide on her own.
let's	Let's go for a walk through the park.

after make + object:

make	She made Peggy and Samantha clean the room.

13. Modals

1) can

Use	Examples
ability to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be able to)	I can speak English.
permission to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be allowed to)	Can I go to the cinema?
request	Can you wait a moment, please?
offer	I can lend you my car till tomorrow.
suggestion	Can we visit Grandma at the weekend?
possibility	It can get very hot in Arizona.

2) could

Use	Examples
ability to do sth. in the past (substitute form: to be able to)	I could speak English.
permission to do sth. in the past (substitute form: to be allowed to)	I could go to the cinema.
polite question *	Could I go to the cinema, please?
polite request *	Could you wait a moment, please?
polite offer *	I could lend you my car till tomorrow.
polite suggestion *	Could we visit Grandma at the weekend?
possibility *	It could get very hot in Montana.

3) may

Use	Examples
possibility	It may rain today.
permission to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be allowed to)	May I go to the cinema?
polite suggestion	May I help you?

4) might

Use	Examples
possibility (less possible than may) *	It might rain today.
hesitant offer *	Might I help you?

5) must

Use	Examples
force, necessity	I must go to the supermarket today.
possibility	You must be tired.
advice, recommendation	You must see the new film with Brad Pitt.

6) must not/may not

Use	Examples
prohibition	You mustn't work on dad's computer. You may not work on dad's computer.

7) need not

Use	Examples
not necessary	I needn't go to the supermarket, we're going to the restaurant tonight.

8) ought to

Use	Examples
advice	You ought to drive carefully in bad weather.
obligation	You ought to switch off the light when you leave the room.

9) shall

instead of will in the 1st person

Use	Examples
suggestion	Shall I carry your bag?

10) should

Use	Examples
advice	You should drive carefully in bad weather.
obligation	You should switch off the light when you leave the room.

11) will

Use	Examples
wish, request, demand, order (less polite than would)	Will you please shut the door?
prediction, assumption	I think it will rain on Friday.
promise	I will stop smoking.
spontaneous decision	Can somebody drive me to the station? - I will.
habits	She's strange, she'll sit for hours without talking.

12) would

Use	Examples
wish, request (more polite than will)	Would you shut the door, please?
habits in the past	Sometimes he would bring me some flowers.

14. Gerund

Use (-ing form used as a noun)

Form (infinitive + -ing)

Examples

Going to parties is fun.	I enjoy reading.
Gerund is subject	Gerund is object

15. Gerund after prepositions (adjectives)

We use the Gerund after prepositions.

adjective + preposition

We use the Gerund after the following phrases:
afraid of	They are afraid of losing the match.
angry about/at	Pat is angry about walking in the rain.
bad at good at	John is good at working in the garden.
clever at	He is clever at skateboarding.
crazy about	The girl is crazy about playing tennis.
disappointed about/at	He is disappointed about seeing such a bad report.
excited about	We are excited about making our own film.
famous for	Sandy is famous for singing songs.
fed up with	I'm fed up with being treated as a child.
fond of	Hannah is fond of going to parties.
glad about	She is glad about getting married again.
happy about/at	The children are not happy about seeing a doctor.
interested in	Are you interested in writing poems?
keen on	Joe is keen on drawing.
proud of	She is proud of riding a snowboard.
sick of	We're sick of sitting around like this.
sorry about/for	He's sorry for eating in the lesson.
tired of	I'm tired of waiting for you.
used to	She is used to smoking.
worried about	I'm worried about making mistakes.

16. Gerund after prepositions (nouns)

We use the Gerund after prepositions.

noun + preposition

We use the Gerund after the following nouns:
advantage of	What is the advantage of farming over hunting?
chance of	There's a chance of catching a cold these days.
choice between	There's a choice between flying to London Heathrow or Stansted.
danger of	Peggy is in danger of making a mistake.
difficulty in	He has difficulty in sending SMS.
doubt about	He is in doubt about buying the correct software for his computer system.
hope of	There's little hope of catching Schumacher's Ferrari.
idea of	I like the idea of setting up a new email account.
interest in	There's no interest in writing letters.
method of	This is a simple method of finding solutions.
opportunity of	There's some opportunity of bringing her parents together again.
possibility of	These new wheels offer the possibility of riding tubeless.
problem of	He has the problem of swimming too slow.
reason for	There's a real reason for winning the contest.
risk of	There's a risk of digging too deep.
trouble for	He was in trouble for stealing.
way of	This is a new way of building a wall.

17. Gerund after prepositions (verbs)

We use the Gerund after prepositions.

Exception: to
Here we use the phrase: looking forward to + Gerund

Example:
I'm looking forward to seeing you soon.

verb + preposition

We use the Gerund after the following phrases:
accuse of	They were accused of breaking into a shop.
agree with	I agree with playing darts.
apologize for	They apologize for being late.
believe in	She doesn't believe in getting lost in the wood.
blame for	The reporter is blamed for writing bad stories.
complain about	She complains about bullying.
concentrate on	Do you concentrate on reading or writing?
congratulate sb. on	I wanted to congratulate you on making such a good speech.
cope with	He is not sure how to cope with getting older.
decide against	They decided against stealing the car.
depend on	Success may depend on becoming more patient.
dream about/of	Sue dreams of being a pop star.
feel like	They feel like going to bed.
get used to	You must get used to working long hours.
insist on	The girls insisted on going out with Mark.
look forward to	I'm looking forward to seeing you soon.
prevent sb. from sth.	How can I prevent Kate from working in this shop?
rely on sth.	He doesn't rely on winning in the casino.
succeed in	How then can I succeed in learning chemistry?
specialize in	The firm specialized in designing websites.
stop sb. from	I stopped Andrew from smoking.
talk about/of	They often talk about travelling to New Zealand.
think of	Frank thinks of playing chess.
warn sb. against	We warned them against using this computer.
worry about	The patient worries about having the check-up.

18. Gerund after special phrases

We use the Gerund after the following phrases:
to be busy	He is busy reading the paper.
couldn't help	She couldn't help eating another apple.
don't mind	I don't mind telling them my opinion.
feel like	We feel like having a cup of tea.
how about	How about walking home instead of taking the car?
it's (no) good	It's no good talking to this girl.
it's no use	It's no use talking to the headmaster.
spend one's time	They spend their time reading.
there's no	There's no cheating anymore.
there's no point	There's no point in complaining further.
what about	What about going to the zoo?
worth	The book is worth reading.

19. Gerund after special verbs

We use the Gerund after the following verbs:
admit	He admitted having driven too fast.
avoid	They avoid going on holiday on Saturdays.
carry on	If we carry on sleeping so badly, we may need help.
consider	Ralph is considering buying a new house.
delay	I delayed telling Max the news.
deny	She denies reading the book.
dislike	We dislike reading poems.
can't help	He couldn't help falling in love with her.
enjoy	I enjoy playing chess.
finish	They finished working in the garden.
give up	Susan gives up playing ice-hockey.
imagine	He imagined driving a new car.
include	Your responsibility includes taking reservations on the phone.
involve	The project will involve growing plants.
justify	I cannot justify paying $100 for this ticket.
keep (on)	They keep on running.
mention	Did Alex ever mention playing baseball?
mind	I don't mind sleeping on the couch.
miss	They miss playing with their friends.
practise	She practised playing hockey.
regret	Do you regret having mentioned it?
risk	You risk catching a cold.
suggest	She suggested flying to Cairo.

20. Gerund and Infinitive - difference in meaning

Some verbs have different meaning. (when used with Gerund or Infinitive)

	GERUND	INFINITIVE
forget	He'll never forget spending so much money on his first computer.	Don't forget to spend money on the tickets.

	GERUND	INFINITIVE
go on	Go on reading the text.	Go on to read the text.

	GERUND	INFINITIVE
mean	You have forgotten your homework again. That means phoning your mother.	I meant to phone your mother, but my mobile didn't work.

	GERUND	INFINITIVE
remember	I remember switching off the lights when I went on holiday.	Remember to switch off the lights when you go on holiday.

	GERUND	INFINITIVE
stop	Stop reading the text.	Stop to read the text.

	GERUND	INFINITIVE
try	Why don't you try running after the dog?	I tried to run after the dog, but I was too slow.

21. Gerund and Infinitive (no difference in meaning)

We use the Gerund or the Infinitive after the following verbs:
begin	He began talking. He began to talk.
continue	They continue smoking. They continue to smoke.
hate	Do you hate working on Saturdays? Do you hate to work on Saturdays?
like	I like swimming. I like to swim.
love	She loves painting. She loves to paint.
prefer	Pat prefers walking home. Pat prefers to walk home.
start	They start singing. They start to sing.

We use the Gerund or the Infinitive after the following verbs. There are two possible structures after these verbs. Gerund: verb + -ing Infinitive: verb + person + to-infinitive
advise	They advise walking to town. They advise us to walk to town.
allow	They do not allow smoking here. They do not allow us to smoke here.
encourage	They encourage doing the test. They encourage us to do the test.
permit	They do not permit smoking here. They do not permit us to smoke here.

We use the following structures with the word recommend:

recommend

They recommend walking to town.
They recommend that we walk to town.

22. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS)

Joining Two Similar Thoughts

FANBOYS is an acronym for the words most commonly used to join two independent clauses.
Acronym = a word formed from the initial letters of words

FANBOYS

CONNECTOR	CLAUSE 1	CLAUSE 2	JOINED WITH A COMMA & CONNECTOR	MEANING
FOR	He couldn't go home.	He had no place to go.	*He couldn't go home , for he had no place to go.	because
AND	I took a taxi.	She drove home.	I took a taxi , and she drove home.	addition
NOR	He didn't want help.	He didn't ask for it	He didn't want help, nor did he ask for it.	and not
BUT	I wanted to go late.	She wanted to go on time.	I wanted to go late, but she wanted to go on time.	contrast
OR	She cooked dinner.	He took her out to a restaurant.	She cooked dinner, or he took her out to a restaurant.	either
YET	She owned a car.	She didn't know how to drive it.	She owned a car, yet she didn't know how to drive it.	though
SO	She had to go.	She called a friend to drive her.	She had to go, so she called a friend to drive her.	result

*Note: "For" as a connector, is uncommonly used in spoken American English.

23. CONJUNCTIONS VS COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

CONJUNCTIONS			COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
*A conjunction joins a phrase to an independent clause.*			*A coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses.*
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE	CONJ.	PHRASE	INDEPENDENT CLAUSE	COORD.	INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
She danced	and	waved a fan.	She danced	, and	he played a flute.
She played the piano	but	preferred dancing.	She played the piano	, but	we preferred dancing.

Note: a complete sentence (an independent clause) requires a subject and a verb. The exception is in a command such as "Stop!" The subject is understood to be "You stop!"

Practice

Edit the text in the box. Punctuate the following sentences by adding periods (.) and commas (,). Do not add any words.

Read the sentence and give your response!

1. I heard the news about a fire on the radio and my family saw it on the television.

2. They said it was caused by an exploding computer but I didn't understand how.

3. The fire chief called in all his men but he pulled them back.

4. The building became engulfed in flames so they stood by. (engulfed - surrounded, covered)

5. The police wanted to inspect the scene of the fire and the fire chief did too.

6. They needed to examine everything for they did not think it was an accident.

7. The police could not find the source of the fire nor could the fire chief.

8. Either someone set the fire or someone caused the fire accidentally.

9. Not only did the dogs find the source of the fire but they also found the burned-out computer.

10. The fire chief wanted to close the case yet the police needed to keep it open.

24. NOUN CLAUSE

That / What Phrases

Beginning a Sentence with That or What

THAT	WHAT
That introduces an entire clause as the subject of a sentence; 2) places emphasis on it; 3) is usually followed by (be) and an adjective.	What replaces the subject or object of the subject-clause; 2) places emphasis on it; 3) is usually followed by (be) and an adjective.
He said, "We need change in this country!" That we need change in this country was clear to me.	He said something. ("We need change in this country!") What he said was clear to me. (What replaces the object.)
He promised, "We will fix our healthcare system." That the healthcare system needs fixing is obvious!	The healthcare system needs fixing. ("We will fix our healthcare system.") What needs fixing is obvious! (What replaces the subject.)
"My mother cared for and educated me." That his mother cared for and educated him was appreciated.	His mother did something. ("His mother cared for and educated him..") What his mother did was appreciated. (What replaces the object.)

obvious (adj.) = clear; easy to understand; already known

What Pronoun

WHAT as subject of clause	WHAT as object of clause
The pronoun what can replace the subject of the what-clause. What + verb + indirect obj.	The pronoun what can replace the object of the what-clause. What + subj + verb
What appeals to me – is his energy. Something (subj) appeals to me.	I heard – what he said. He said something (obj).
His energy is – what appeals to me.	What he said – was shocking!

That / It

THAT-CLAUSE as SENTENCE SUBJECT	THAT-CLAUSE as SENTENCE OBJECT
That can introduce a whole clause as the subject of a sentence. At the beginning of the sentence, it is often followed by (be) and an adjective-phrase.	That can introduce a whole clause as the object of a sentence. It + (be) + adjective-phrase comes before a that-clause.
That he was a good speaker was obvious to me.	It was obvious to me that he was a good speaker.
That he was born in Hawaii was not commonly known.	It was not commonly known that he was born in Hawaii.
That change is coming is clear to all.	It is clear to all that change is coming.

What / It

WHAT-CLAUSE as SENTENCE SUBJECT	WHAT-CLAUSE as SENTENCE OBJECT
What can replace and emphasize the subject or object of the subject of a sentence. As the subject of the sentence, it is often followed by (be) and an adjective-phrase.	What can replace and emphasize the subject or object of the object of a sentence. As the object of the sentence, It + (be) + adjective-phrase comes before it
What he said was obvious to me. what = "We shouldn't spend more money than we have.	It is obvious to me what he said. (object) Context: "We shouldn't spend more money than we have.
What she did for him was very much appreciated. what = His mother cared for and educated him.	It was very much appreciated what she did for him. (object) Context: His mother cared for and educated him.
What he said was that change is coming. what = "Change is coming."	It is clear to all what he said. (object) Context: "Change is coming."

Practice 1

Fill the blank with ‘what’ or ‘that’!

1. … change is coming is Barack Obama's message.

2. … he is saying is welcomed by his supporters.

3. … he is African-American is a first for a candidate.

4. … appeals to young voters are his youthful ideas.

5. He believes … the country should have healthcare for everyone.

6. It is hard to imagine … people do without health insurance.

7. … people want is a new direction for this country.

8. It's hard to believe … we are 9 trillion dollars in debt.

9. … the country needs is new and better leadership.

III. LISTENING

I. Listen to the song carefully. While listening, complete the missing lyrics!

Still Loving You

Time, it ………… (1) time to win back your love again

I will be there, I will be there

Love, only love can ………… (2) back your love some day

I will be there, I will be there

Fight, I will fight to win back your love again

I will be there, I will be there

Love, only love can break ……………………… (3) some day

I will be there, I will be there

Ref

If we’d go again all the ………… (4) from the start

I would try to change the things that killed our love

Your pride has built a wall so strong that I can get ………… (5)

Is there really no ………… (6) to start once again

I’ m still loving you

Try, babe try to ………… (7) in my love again

I will be there, I will be there

Love, our love just don’t ……………………… (8)

I will be there, I will be there

Back to ref

Your pride has built a wall so strong that I can get through

Is there really no chance to start once again

I’ m still loving you

Back to ref

Your pride has built a wall so strong that I can get through

Is there really no chance this can be ………… (9)

I’ m still loving you

………… (10) loving you

II. Find the synonym of the words below from the lyrics of the song!

a. like : ………………………………..

b. sometime : ………………………………..

c. struggle : ………………………………..

d. destroy : ………………………………..

e. begin : ………………………………..

f. arrogance : ………………………………..

g. believe : ………………………………..

h. opportunity : ………………………………..

III. Complete the blanks with correct words in part I.

1. Stop chatting and let’s ………………….. our discussion.

2. Many friends of his don’t like his way of speaking which shows his …………………..

3. You can’t only wait for what you want, you have to ………………… for it.

4. I won’t believe you because you always ………………….. your promise.

5. If you came to the party you had a ……………………….. to meet her parents.

6. Never say good bye; say till we meet again …………………….

7. Can you tell me what kind of music you ……………. most.

8. You are my best friend and I ……………….. you will always be.

IV. Listen to the song carefully. While listening, circle the correct words from the underline part!

Only you

Only you can make all this world/word (1) seems right

Only you can make the darkness right/bright (2)

Only you and you alone can drill/thrill (3) me like you do

And you fill/feel (4) my heart/hard (5) with love

For/four (6) only you

Ref

Only you can make all this change/chance (7) in me

For it’s through/true (8) you are my destiny

When you hold/hole (9) my hand I understand the magic that you do

You’re/your (10) my dream come true

My one and only you

Back to ref

V. Make sentences by using the underlined words in the song above!

IV. SPEAKING

1. SPEAKING SEQUENCE – DISCUSSION (current issues)

Find a current issue about information science from media (TV, magazine or newspaper) and then discuss about the issue with your friends in English, in the class.

1.1 SPEAKING GUIDANCE

Here are some expressions used in discussion and debate:

Discussion Techniques

Opening a discussion

To begin with, ….

We need to discuss . . .

Let's start by (V ing)

We'll start by (V ing)

The problem here is . . . (issue/question)

The important thing (here) is . . .

The main thing we need to discuss is . . .

Let's look at . . .

It looks like . . .

It appears that . . .

Asking for input

What do you think?

How about you?

How do you feel about that?

Any ideas on that?

Responding

(That sounds like a) good idea.
Sounds good.

The problem with that is . . .

That raises the issue of . . .

Analyzing Problems

Focusing on the main problem/issue

What is the main problem?

What is the real issue (here)?

(I think) the major problem is . . .

Our primary concern is . . .

The crux of the matter is . . .

(As I see it), the most important thing is . . .

The main problem we need to solve is . . .

We really need to take care of . . .

It all comes down to this:

Asking for input

What should we do about it?

What needs to be done?

What do you think we should do?

What are we going to do about it?

Do you have any suggestions?

Any ideas?

Making Recommendations

I recommend that . . .

I suggest that . . .

I would like to propose that . . .

Why don't we . . .

Checking for Understanding

Checking for Understanding

(Do you) know what I mean?

Do you know what I'm saying?

Do you understand?

Are you following me?

Are you with me (so far)?

Have you got it?

Any questions?

Got it?

Showing Understanding

I see.

I understand.

I get it./I got it.

Gotcha. (Informal)

Expressing Lack of Understanding

I don't get it.

(I'm sorry.) I don't understand.

What do you mean?

I'm not following you.

I don't quite follow you.

I'm not sure I get what you mean.

What was that again?

Clarifying

Clarifying your own ideas

In other words,

What I mean is . . .

What I'm trying to say is . . .

What I wanted to say was . . .

To clarify,

Asking for Clarification

What do you mean (by that)?

What are you trying to say?

What was that again?

Could you clarify that?

Clarifying another's ideas

You mean . . .

What you mean is . . .
What you're saying is . . .

(I think) what she means is . . .
What he's trying to say is . . .

If I understand you, (you're saying that . . . )

If I'm hearing you correctly,

So, you think (that) . . .

So, your idea is . . .

Classifying

There are five kinds of . . .

There are two types of . . .

There are three categories of . . .

We can divide (this) into three parts:

This can be broken down into four sections.
They are:

Commenting

If you would like to make a comment or insert a remark in an ongoing conversation, it is polite to acknowledge what someone has just said before stating your own ideas.

Some phrases

That's interesting. I think that...

Interesting point. I would add...

Hmmm. I hadn't thought of that before.

Questions can also be a useful way of bringing new ideas into a conversation:

What do you think about . . .

Have you considered . . .

What about . . .

Sometimes a more direct approach is appropriate:

Can I add something here?

(Do you) mind if I interject something here?

Conceding to Make a Point

That may be true, but . . .

I may be wrong, but . . .

You might be right, but . . .

You have a good point, but . . .

You could say that, but . . .

Correct me if I'm wrong, but . . .

I don't mean to be rude, but . . .

I hate to bring this up, but . . .

I don't mean to be negative, but . . .

This may sound strange, but . . .

Contrasting

On the other hand,

However,

Yes, but . . .

You may be right, but . . .

I may be wrong, but . . .

Correct me if I'm wrong, but . . .

On the contrary,

Elaborating

Asking for Elaboration

Could you elaborate (on that)?

Could you tell me a little more about it?

Could you give (me) some details?

Could you fill me in on that?

Could you expound on that?

What else can you tell us (about that)?

Is there anything else you can tell us?

Is there more to it?

Elaborating

To elaborate,

To give you more information,

Let me explain.

Let me elaborate.

Let me tell you a little more (about it).

Let me give you some details.

What's more,

Exploring Options

Asking for input

What do you think (about . . . )?

How do you feel (about . . . )?

Any ideas?

What are the alternatives?

Exploring Options

Let's look at Option 1.

What (do you think) about Plan B?

How about the third alternative?

Let's consider Bob's proposal.

Moving on

Let's move on to Option 2.

What about Plan C?

Let's look at the fourth choice.

How about Mary's idea?

Should we move on to the next point?

Before we move on, we need to consider . . .

Giving Instructions

Asking for Instructions

How do you (do this)?

How do I . . . ?

What is the best way to . . . ?

How do I go about it?

What do you suggest?

How do you suggest I proceed?

What is the first step?

Giving Instructions

Sequencing

First, (you) . . .

Then, (you) . . .

Next, (you) . . .

Lastly, (you) . . .

Starting out

Before you begin, (you should . . .)

The first thing you do is . . . .

I would start by . . .

The best place to begin is . . .

To begin with,

Continuing

After that,

The next step is to . . .

The next thing you do is . . .

Once you've done that, then . . .

When you finish that, then . . .

Finishing

The last step is . . .

The last thing you do is . . .

In the end,

When you've finished,

When you've completed all the steps,

Interrupting

Interrupting politely

Excuse me,

Pardon me,

Sorry to interrupt,

May I interrupt (for a minute)?

Can I add something here?

I don't mean to intrude, but . . .

Could I inject something here?

Do you mind if I jump in here?

Getting back to the topic

Anyway,

Now, where was I?

Where were we?

What were you saying?

You were saying . . .

To get back to . . .

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing involves restating someone else's ideas in your own words.

There are several phrases that can be used to introduce paraphrasing:

So . . . (rephrase the other person's ideas)

In other words . . . (paraphrase)

I understand. (You're saying that . . .)

Oh. I see. (You want to say that . . . )

I get it. (You mean . . .)

So, what you mean is . . .

Let me see if I understand you correctly. . .

What I think you're saying is . . .

If I'm hearing you correctly . . .

Simple Presentations

Introduction

(Good morning, afternoon, evening)

I'm happy to be here.

I'm glad to have this opportunity to . . .

Today, I'd like to talk (to you) about . . .

My topic today is . . .

The focus of my remarks is . . .

I'd like to share some thoughts on (topic)

Main points

Let me start by . . .

First, let me tell you about . . .

I've divided my topic into (three) parts: (They are . . .)

Giving examples

For instance,

Let me illustrate,

To illustrate,

Conclusion

In conclusion,

To conclude,

To summarize,

To sum up,

Supporting Opinions

Giving your opinion

I think that . . .

I don't think that . . .

In my opinion . . .

Asking for support or details

Why do you think that?

Could you elaborate?

Could you give (me) an example?

Can you illustrate that?

What evidence do you have?

Could you explain it in more detail?

Could you provide some details?

Supporting your opinions

Let me illustrate,

For example,

For instance,

To give you an example,

Let me give you an example,

To elaborate,

First, (second), etc.

V. COMPUTER VOCABULARY

A - C

applet

A small Java application that is downloaded by an ActiveX or Java-enabled web browser. Once it has been downloaded, the applet will run on the user's computer. Common applets include financial calculators and web drawing programs.

application

Computer software that performs a task or set of tasks, such as word processing or drawing. Applications are also referred to as programs.

ASCII

American Standard Code for Information Interchange, an encoding system for converting keyboard characters and instructions into the binary number code that the computer understands.

bandwidth

The capacity of a networked connection. Bandwidth determines how much data can be sent along the networked wires. Bandwidth is particularly important for Internet connections, since greater bandwidth also means faster downloads.

binary code

The most basic language a computer understands, it is composed of a series of 0s and 1s. The computer interprets the code to form numbers, letters, punctuation marks, and symbols.

bit

(short for “binary digit”). The smallest piece of computer information, either the number 0 or 1.

boot

To start up a computer. Cold boot—restarting computer after having turned off the power. Warm boot—restarting computer without having turned off the power.

browser

Software used to navigate the Internet. Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer are today's most popular browsers for accessing the World Wide Web.

bug

A malfunction due to an error in the program or a defect in the equipment.

byte

Most computers use combinations of eight bits, called bytes, to represent one character of data or instructions. For example, the word “cat” has three characters, and it would be represented by three bytes.

cache

A small data-memory storage area that a computer can use to instantly re-access data instead of re-reading the data from the original source, such as a hard drive. Browsers use a cache to store web pages so that the user may view them again without reconnecting to the Web.

CAD-CAM

Computer Aided Drawing-Computer Aided Manufacturing. The instructions stored in a computer that will be translated to very precise operating instructions to a robot, such as for assembling cars or laser-cutting signage.

CD-ROM

Compact Disc Read-Only Memory. An optically read disc designed to hold information such as music, reference materials, or computer software. A single CD-ROM can hold around 640 megabytes of data, enough for several encyclopedias. Most software programs are now delivered on CD-ROMs.

CGI

Common Gateway Interface. A programming standard that allows visitors to fill out form fields on a Web page and have that information interact with a database, possibly coming back to the user as another Web page.

CGI may also refer to Computer-Generated Imaging, the process in which sophisticated computer programs create still and animated graphics, such as special effects for movies.

chat

Typing text into a message box on a screen to engage in dialog with one or more people via the Internet or other network.

chip (computer chip)

A tiny wafer of silicon containing miniature electric circuits that can store millions of bits of information.

client

A single user of a network application that is operated from a server. A client/server architecture allows many people to use the same data simultaneously. The program's main component (the data) resides on a centralized server, with smaller components (user interface) on each client.

Cookie

A text file sent by a Web server that is stored on the hard drive of a computer and relays back to the Web server things about the user, his or her computer, and/or his or her computer activities.

CPU

Central Processing Unit. The brain of the computer.

cracker

A person who “breaks in” to a computer through a network, without authorization and with mischievous or destructive intent (a crime in some states).

crash

A hardware or software problem that causes information to be lost or the computer to malfunction. Sometimes a crash can cause permanent damage to a computer.

cursor

A moving position-indicator displayed on a computer monitor that shows a computer operator where the next action or operation will take place.

cyberspace

Slang for the Internet.

D - F

database

A collection of similar information stored in a file, such as a database of addresses. This information may be created and stored in a database management system (DBMS).

debug

Slang. To find and correct equipment defects or program malfunctions.

default

The pre-defined configuration of a system or an application. In most programs, the defaults can be changed to reflect personal preferences.

desktop

The main directory of the user interface. Desktops usually contain icons that represent links to the hard drive, a network (if there is one), and a trash or recycling can for files to be deleted. It can also display icons of frequently used applications, as requested by the user.

desktop publishing

The production of publication-quality documents using a personal computer in combination with text, graphics, and page layout programs.

directory

A list of files stored in the computer.

disk

Two distinct types. The names refer to the media inside the container:

A hard disc stores vast amounts of data. It is usually inside the computer but can be a separate peripheral on the outside. Hard discs are made up of several rigid coated metal discs. Currently, hard discs can store 15 to 30 Gb (gigabytes)

A floppy disc, 3.5" square, usually inserted into the computer and can store about 1.4 megabytes of data. The 3.5" square “floppies” have a very thin, flexible disc inside. There is also an intermediate-sized floppy disc, trademarked Zip discs, which can store 250 megabytes of data.

disk drive

The equipment that operates a hard or floppy disc.

documentation

The instruction manual for a piece of hardware or software.

domain

Represents an IP (Internet Protocol) address or set of IP addresses that comprise a domain. The domain name appears in URLs to identify web pages or in email addresses. For example, the email address for the First Lady is first.lady@whitehouse.gov, “whitehouse.gov” being the domain name. Each domain name ends with a suffix that indicates what “top level domain” it belongs to. These are: “.com” for commercial, “.gov” for government, “.org” for organization, “.edu” for educational institution, “.biz” for business, “.info” for information, “.tv” for television, “.ws” for website. Domain suffixes may also indicate the country in which the domain is registered. No two parties can ever hold the same domain name.

domain name

The name of a network or computer linked to the Internet. Domains are defined by a common IP address or set of similar IP (Internet Protocol) addresses.

download

The process of transferring information from a web site (or other remote location on a network) to the computer. It is possible to “download a file” or “view a download.”

v. To transfer information from a web site (or other remote location on a network) to the computer.

DOS

Disk Operating System. An operating system designed for early IBM-compatible PCs.

Drop-down menu

A menu window that opens vertically on-screen to display context-related options. Also called pop-up menu or pull-down menu.

DSL

Digital Subscriber Line. A method of connecting to the Internet via a phone line. A DSL connection uses copper telephone lines but is able to relay data at much higher speeds than modems and does not interfere with telephone use.

DVD

Digital Video Disc—Similar to a CD-ROM, it stores and plays both audio and video.

ebook

An electronic (usually hand-held) reading device that allows a person to view digitally stored reading materials.

email

Electronic mail; messages, including memos or letters, sent electronically between networked computers that may be across the office or around the world.

emoticon

A text-based expression of emotion created from ASCII characters that mimics a facial expression when viewed with your head tilted to the left. Here are some examples:
:-) Smiling
:-( Frowning
;-) Winking
:_( Crying

encryption

The process of transmitting scrambled data so that only authorized recipients can unscramble it. For instance, encryption is used to scramble credit card information when purchases are made over the Internet.

ethernet

A type of network.

ethernet card

A board inside a computer to which a network cable can be attached.

file

A set of data that is stored in the computer.

firewall

A set of security programs that protect a computer from outside interference or access via the Internet.

Firewire

Apple® Computer's high-speed data transfer. Frequently used to import video to a computer.

folder

A structure for containing electronic files. In some operating systems, it is called a “directory.”

fonts

Sets of typefaces (or characters) that come in different styles and sizes.

freeware

Software created by people who are willing to give it away for the satisfaction of sharing or knowing they helped to simplify other people's lives. It may be freestanding software, or it may add functionality to existing software.

FTP

File Transfer Protocol. A format and set of rules for transferring files from a host to a remote computer.

G - K

gigabyte (GB)

1024 megabytes. Also called gig.

glitch

The cause of an unexpected malfunction.

Gopher

An Internet search tool that allows users to access textual information through a series of menus, or if using FTP, through downloads.

GUI

Graphical User Interface. A system that simplifies selecting computer commands by enabling the user to point to symbols or illustrations (called icons) on the computer screen with a mouse.

groupware

Software that allows networked individuals to form groups and collaborate on documents, programs, or databases.

hacker

A person with technical expertise who experiments with computer systems to determine how to develop additional features. Hackers are occasionally requested by system administrators to try and “break into” systems via a network to test security. The term hacker is sometimes incorrectly used interchangeably with cracker. A hacker is called a “white hat” and a cracker a “black hat.”

hard copy

A paper printout of what you have prepared on the computer.

hard drive

another name for the hard disc that stores information information in a computer.

hardware

The physical and mechanical components of a computer system, such as the electronic circuitry, chips, monitor, disks, disk drives, keyboard, modem, and printer.

home page

The main page of a Web site used to greet visitors, provide information about the site, or to direct the viewer to other pages on the site.

HTML

Hypertext Markup Language. A standard of text markup conventions used for documents on the World Wide Web. Browsers interpret the codes to give the text structure and formatting (such as bold, blue, or italic).

HTTP

Hypertext Transfer Protocol. A common system used to request and send HTML documents on the World Wide Web. It is the first portion of all URL addresses on the World Wide Web (e.g., http://www.whitehouse.gov).

HTTPS

Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. Often used in intracompany internet sites. Passwords are required to gain access.

hyperlink

Text or an image that is connected by hypertext coding to a different location. By selecting the text or image with a mouse, the computer “jumps to” (or displays) the linked text.

hypermedia

Integrates audio, graphics, and/or video through links embedded in the main program.

hypertext

A system for organizing text through links, as opposed to a menu-driven hierarchy such as Gopher. Most Web pages include hypertext links to other pages at that site, or to other sites on the World Wide Web.

Icons (folder icon)

Symbols or illustrations appearing on the computer screen that indicate program files or other computer functions.

input

Data that goes into a computer device.

input device

A device, such as a keyboard, stylus and tablet, mouse, puck, or microphone, that allows input of information (letters, numbers, sound, video) to a computer.

instant messaging (IM)

A chat application that allows two or more people to communicate over the Internet via real-time keyed-in messages.

interface

The interconnections that allow a device, a program, or a person to interact. Hardware interfaces are the cables that connect the device to its power source and to other devices. Software interfaces allow the program to communicate with other programs (such as the operating system), and user interfaces allow the user to communicate with the program (e.g., via mouse, menu commands, icons, voice commands, etc.).

Internet

An international conglomeration of interconnected computer networks. Begun in the late 1960s, it was developed in the 1970s to allow government and university researchers to share information. The Internet is not controlled by any single group or organization. Its original focus was research and communications, but it continues to expand, offering a wide array of resources for business and home users.

IP (Internet Protocol) address

An Internet Protocol address is a unique set of numbers used to locate another computer on a network. The format of an IP address is a 32-bit string of four numbers separated by periods. Each number can be from 0 to 255 (i.e., 1.154.10.266). Within a closed network IP addresses may be assigned at random, however, IP addresses of web servers must be registered to avoid duplicates.

Equal to 1,024 bytes.

Java

An object-oriented programming language designed specifically for programs (particularly multimedia) to be used over the Internet. Java allows programmers to create small programs or applications (applets) to enhance Web sites.

Javascript/ECMA script

A programming language used almost exclusively to manipulate content on a web page. Common Javascript functions include validating forms on a web page, creating dynamic page navigation menus, and image rollovers.

kilobyte (K or KB)

L - O

link

See hyperlink.

Linux

A UNIX®-like, open-source operating system developed primarily by Linus Torvalds. Linux is free and runs on many platforms, including both PCs and Macintoshes. Linux is an open-source operating system, meaning that the source code of the operating system is freely available to the public. Programmers may redistribute and modify the code, as long as they don't collect royalties on their work or deny access to their code. Since development is not restricted to a single corporation more programmers can debug and improve the source code faster..

laptop and notebook

Small, lightweight, portable battery-powered computers that can fit onto your lap. They each have a thin, flat, liquid crystal display screen.

macro

A script that operates a series of commands to perform a function. It is set up to automate repetitive tasks.

Mac OS

. An operating system with a graphical user interface, developed by Apple® for Macintosh® computers. Current System “X.1” (10) combines the traditional Mac interface with a strong underlying UNIX® operating system for increased performance and stability.

megabyte (MB)

Equal to 1,048,576 bytes, usually rounded off to one million bytes (also called a “meg”).

memory

Temporary storage for information, including applications and documents. The information must be stored to a permanent device, such as a hard disc or CD-ROM before the power is turned off, or the information will be lost. Computer memory is measured in terms of the amount of information it can store, commonly in megabytes or gigabytes.

menu

A context-related list of options that users can choose from.

menu bar

The horizontal strip across the top of an application's window. Each word on the strip has a context sensitive drop-down menu containing features and actions that are available for the application in use.

merge

To combine two or more files into a single file.

MHz

An abbreviation for Megahertz, or one million hertz. One MHz represents one million clock cycles per second and is the measure of a computer microprocessor's speed. For example, a microprocessor that runs at 300 MHz executes 300 million cycles per second. Each instruction a computer receives takes a fixed number of clock cycles to carry out, therefore the more cycles a computer can execute per second, the faster its programs run. Megahertz is also a unit of measure for bandwidth.

microprocessor

A complete central processing unit (CPU) contained on a single silicon chip.

minimize

A term used in a GUI operating system that uses windows. It refers to reducing a window to an icon, or a label at the bottom of the screen, allowing another window to be viewed.

modem

A device that connects two computers together over a telephone or cable line by converting the computer's data into an audio signal. Modem is a contraction for the process it performs: modulate-demodulate.

monitor

A video display terminal.

mouse

A small hand-held device, similar to a trackball, used to control the position of the cursor on the video display; movements of the mouse on a desktop correspond to movements of the cursor on the screen.

MP3

Compact audio and video file format. The small size of the files makes them easy to download and e-mail. Format used in portable playback devices.

multimedia

Software programs that combine text and graphics with sound, video, and animation. A multimedia PC contains the hardware to support these capabilities.

MS-DOS

An early operating system developed by Microsoft Corporation (Microsoft Disc Operating System).

network

A system of interconnected computers.

open source

Computer programs whose original source code was revealed to the general public so that it could be developed openly. Software licensed as open source can be freely changed or adapted to new uses, meaning that the source code of the operating system is freely available to the public. Programmers may redistribute and modify the code, as long as they don't collect royalties on their work or deny access to their code. Since development is not restricted to a single corporation more programmers can debug and improve the source code faster.

operating system

A set of instructions that tell a computer on how to operate when it is turned on. It sets up a filing system to store files and tells the computer how to display information on a video display. Most PC operating systems are DOS (disc operated system) systems, meaning the instructions are stored on a disc (as opposed to being originally stored in the microprocessors of the computer). Other well-known operating systems include UNIX, Linux, Macintosh, and Windows.

output

Data that come out of a computer device. For example, information displayed on the monitor, sound from the speakers, and information printed to paper.

P - S

palm

A hand-held computer.

Personal computer. Generally refers to computers running Windows with a Pentium processor.

(printed circuit board)

PC board

Printed Circuit board. A board printed or etched with a circuit and processors. Power supplies, information storage devices, or changers are attached.

PDA

Personal Digital Assistant. A hand-held computer that can store daily appointments, phone numbers, addresses, and other important information. Most PDAs link to a desktop or laptop computer to download or upload information.

PDF

Portable Document Format. A format presented by Adobe Acrobat that allows documents to be shared over a variety of operating systems. Documents can contain words and pictures and be formatted to have electronic links to other parts of the document or to places on the web.

Pentium chip

Intel's fifth generation of sophisticated high-speed microprocessors. Pentium means “the fifth element.”peripheral)

Any external device attached to a computer to enhance operation. Examples include external hard drive, scanner, printer, speakers, keyboard, mouse, trackball, stylus and tablet, and joystick.

personal computer (PC)

A single-user computer containing a central processing unit (CPU) and one or more memory circuits.

petabyte

A measure of memory or storage capacity and is approximately a thousand terabytes.

pet flop

A theoretical measure of a computer's speed and can be expressed as a thousand-trillion floating-point operations per second.

platform

The operating system, such as UNIX®, Macintosh®, Windows®, on which a computer is based.

plug and play

Computer hardware or peripherals that come set up with necessary software so that when attached to a computer, they are “recognized” by the computer and are ready to use.

pop-up menu

A menu window that opens vertically or horizontally on-screen to display context-related options. Also called drop-down menu or pull-down menu.

Power PC

A competitor of the Pentium chip. It is a new generation of powerful sophisticated microprocessors produced from an Apple-IBM-Motorola alliance.

printer

A mechanical device for printing a computer's output on paper. There are three major types of printers:

Dot matrix: creates individual letters, made up of a series of tiny ink dots, by punching a ribbon with the ends of tiny wires. (This type of printer is most often used in industrial settings, such as direct mail for labeling.)

Ink jet: sprays tiny droplets of ink particles onto paper.

Laser: uses a beam of light to reproduce the image of each page using a magnetic charge that attracts dry toner that is transferred to paper and sealed with heat.

program

A precise series of instructions written in a computer language that tells the computer what to do and how to do it. Programs are also called “software” or “applications.”

programming language

A series of instructions written by a programmer according to a given set of rules or conventions (“syntax”). High-level programming languages are independent of the device on which the application (or program) will eventually run; low-level languages are specific to each program or platform. Programming language instructions are converted into programs in language specific to a particular machine or operating system (“machine language”) so that the computer can interpret and carry out the instructions. Some common programming languages are BASIC, C, C++, dBASE, FORTRAN, and Perl.

puck

An input device, like a mouse. It has a magnifying glass with crosshairs on the front of it that allows the operator to position it precisely when tracing a drawing for use with CAD-CAM software.

pull-down menu

A menu window that opens vertically on-screen to display context-related options. Also called drop-down menu or pop-up menu.

push technology

Internet tool that delivers specific information directly to a user's desktop, eliminating the need to surf for it. PointCast, which delivers news in user-defined categories, is a popular example of this technology.

QuickTime®

Audio-visual software that allows movie-delivery via the Internet and e-mail. QuickTime mages are viewed on a monitor.

RAID

Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks. A method of spreading information across several disks set up to act as a unit, using two different techniques:

Disk striping: storing a bit of information across several discs (instead of storing it all on one disc and hoping that the disc doesn't crash).

Disk mirroring: simultaneously storing a copy of information on another disc so that the information can be recovered if the main disc crashes.

RAM

Random Access Memory. One of two basic types of memory. Portions of programs are stored in RAM when the program is launched so that the program will run faster. Though a PC has a fixed amount of RAM, only portions of it will be accessed by the computer at any given time. Also called memory.

right-click

Using the right mouse button to open context-sensitive drop-down menus.

ROM

Read-Only Memory. One of two basic types of memory. ROM contains only permanent information put there by the manufacturer. Information in ROM cannot be altered, nor can the memory be dynamically allocated by the computer or its operator.

scanner

An electronic device that uses light-sensing equipment to scan paper images such as text, photos, and illustrations and translate the images into signals that the computer can then store, modify, or distribute.

search engine

Software that makes it possible to look for and retrieve material on the Internet, particularly the Web. Some popular search engines are Alta Vista, Google, HotBot, Yahoo!, Web Crawler, and Lycos.

server

A computer that shares its resources and information with other computers, called clients, on a network.

shareware

Software created by people who are willing to sell it at low cost or no cost for the gratification of sharing. It may be freestanding software, or it may add functionality to existing software.

software

Computer programs; also called “applications.”

spider

A process search engines use to investigate new pages on a web site and collect the information that needs to be put in their indices.

spreadsheet

Software that allows one to calculate numbers in a format that is similar to pages in a conventional ledger.

storage

Devices used to store massive amounts of information so that it can be readily retrieved. Devices include RAIDs, CD-ROMs, DVDs

streaming

Taking packets of information (sound or visual) from the Internet and storing it in temporary files to allow it to play in continuous flow.

(stylus and tablet)

stylus and tablet

A input device similar to a mouse. The stylus is pen shaped. It is used to “draw” on a tablet (like drawing on paper) and the tablet transfers the information to the computer. The tablet responds to pressure—the firmer the pressure used to draw, the thicker the line appears.

surfing

Exploring the Internet.

surge protector

A controller to protect the computer and make up for variances in voltage.

T – Z

telnet

A way to communicate with a remote computer over a network.

trackball

Input device that controls the position of the cursor on the screen; the unit is mounted near the keyboard, and movement is controlled by moving a ball.

terabytes (TB)

A thousand gigabytes.

teraflop

A measure of a computer's speed. It can be expressed as a trillion floating-point operations per second.

Trojan Horse

See virus.

UNIX®

A very powerful operating system used as the basis of many high-end computer applications.

upload

The process of transferring information from a computer to a web site (or other remote location on a network).

v. To transfer information from a computer to a web site (or other remote location on a network).

URL

Uniform Resource Locator.

1. The protocol for identifying a document on the Web.

2. A Web address (e.g., www.census.gov). A URL is unique to each user. See also domain.

UPS

Universal Power Supply or Uninterruptible Power Supply. An electrical power supply that includes a battery to provide enough power to a computer during an outage to back-up data and properly shut down.

USB

Universal Serial Bus. An industry standard for connecting different compatible peripheral devices across multiple platforms. Devices include printers, digital cameras, scanners, game pads, joysticks, keyboards and mice, and storage devices. USB peripherals offer the use of plug-and-play convenience by eliminating the need to turn off or restart the computer when attaching a new peripheral. Users can connect USB peripherals whenever they need them. For example, a user producing a newsletter could easily swap a digital camera for a scanner-without any downtime. Small, simple, inexpensive, and easy to attach, USB supports simultaneous connection of up to 127 devices by attaching peripherals through interconnected external hubs.

USB hub

A multiple-socket USB connecter that allows several USB-compatible devices to be connected to a computer.

USENET

A large un-moderated and unedited bulletin board on the Internet that offers thousands of forums, called newsgroups. These range from newsgroups exchanging information on scientific advances to celebrity fan clubs.

user friendly

A program or device whose use is intuitive to people with a nontechnical background.

video teleconferencing

A remote “face-to-face chat,” when two or more people using a webcam and an Internet telephone connection chat online. The webcam enables both live voice and video.

virtual reality (VR)

A technology that allows one to experience and interact with images in a simulated three-dimensional environment. For example, you could design a room in a house on your computer and actually feel that you are walking around in it even though it was never built. (The Holodeck in the science-fiction TV series Star Trek: Voyager would be the ultimate virtual reality.) Current technology requires the user to wear a special helmet, viewing goggles, gloves, and other equipment that transmits and receives information from the computer.

virus

An unauthorized piece of computer code attached to a computer program or portions of a computer system that secretly copies itself from one computer to another by shared discs and over telephone and cable lines. It can destroy information stored on the computer, and in extreme cases, can destroy operability. Computers can be protected from viruses if the operator utilizes good virus prevention software and keeps the virus definitions up to date. Most viruses are not programmed to spread themselves. They have to be sent to another computer by e-mail, sharing, or applications. The worm is an exception, because it is programmed to replicate itself by sending copies to other computers listed in the e-mail address book in the computer. There are many kinds of viruses, for example:

Boot viruses place some of their code in the start-up disk sector to automatically execute when booting. Therefore, when an infected machine boots, the virus loads and runs.

File viruses attached to program files (files with the extension “.exe”). When you run the infected program, the virus code executes.

Macro viruses copy their macros to templates and/or other application document files.

Trojan Horse is a malicious, security-breaking program that is disguised as something benign such as a screen saver or game.

Worm launches an application that destroys information on your hard drive. It also sends a copy of the virus to everyone in the computer's e-mail address book.

WAV

A sound format (pronounced “wave”) used to reproduce sounds on a computer.

webcam

A video camera/computer setup that takes live images and sends them to a Web browser.

Window

A portion of a computer display used in a graphical interface that enables users to select commands by pointing to illustrations or symbols with a mouse. “Windows” is also the name Microsoft adopted for its popular operating system.

World Wide Web (“WWW” or “the Web”)

A network of servers on the Internet that use hypertext-linked databases and files. It was developed in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee, a British computer scientist, and is now the primary platform of the Internet. The feature that distinguishes the Web from other Internet applications is its ability to display graphics in addition to text.

word processor

A computer system or program for setting, editing, revising, correcting, storing and printing text.

Worm

See virus.

WYSIWYG

What You See Is What You Get. When using most word processors, page layout programs (See desktop publishing), and web page design programs, words and images will be displayed on the monitor as they will look on the printed page or web page.

REFERENCES

Murphy, Raymond. 1985. English Grammar in Use. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. 2006. Writing Academic English, Fourth Edition. White Plains, NY: Longman

Sevastopoulos@Smccd.Edu – (Retired from) College of San Mateo – San Mateo.

Swan, Michael. 1996. Practical English Usage, Second Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Modul B.Inggris Part.2

A - comparison with -er/-est

1) adjectives with one syllable

2) adjectives with two syllables and the following endings:

2 - 1) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -y

2 - 2) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -er

2 - 3) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -le

2 - 4) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -ow

Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est

B - comparison with more - most

C - Irregular adjectives

D - Special adjectives

Difference in meaning with adjectives:

DIE COMPARISON OF ADVERBS IN ENGLISH

A - Comparison with -er/-est

1) all adverbs with one syllable

2) The adverb: early

B - Comparison with more - most

C - Irregular adverbs

Adverbs of frequency

POSITION OF ADVERBS

The position of adverbs in sentences

The three main positions of adverbs in English sentences

More than one adverb at the end of a sentence

2. Conditional sentences

Form

Examples (if-clause at the beginning)

Examples (if-clause at the end)

Examples (affirmative and negative sentences)

Replacing if - Omitting if - if vs. when - in case vs. if

Replacing if

Omitting if

if vs. when

in case vs. if

3. Prepositions at, in, on

4. Prepositions of place and direction

5. Prepositions of time

6. Question tags - English Grammar

Use: frequently used in spoken English when you want s.o. to agree or disagree

Form

Examples: with auxiliaries

You've got a car, haven't you?

Questions tags - Special

7. Verbs with 2 objects

8. Relative clauses with who/which

9. Types of Questions

1) Yes/No questions

2) Questions with question words

3) Yes/No Questions and short answers with the verb have

4) Questions with question words and the verb have

5) Questions without question words in the Simple Present

6) Questions with question words in the Simple Present

7) Questions without question words in the Simple Past

8) Questions with question words in the Simple Past

9) Subject question

10) Object question

10. Question words

Question words with Examples

11. The Infinitive with to

12. The Infinitive without to

after auxiliaries/modals

after to do

after the following expressions:

after verbs of perception + object (action has finished):

after let + object:

after make + object:

13. Modals

1) can

2) could

3) may

4) might

5) must

6) must not/may not

7) need not

8) ought to

9) shall

10) should

11) will

12) would

14. Gerund